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Part II

North American Black Herbalism

Black communities in North America have a lot of new and modified herbal traditions. These traditions were the most popular, documented, and relied upon in the Southeast where slavery was concentrated. The most common elements were a mixture of African, European and Indigenous healing modalities and medicinal herbs, spiritual practices and folklore. Voodoo, Santeria, and other fusions are examples of this. Their practice is primarily in the Caribbean, Louisiana, as well as other parts of South. Santeria, a branch from the Yoruba religion that originated in Nigeria and was merged with Catholicism to ensure survival, is called Santeria. The customary African gods are addressed as Catholic saints. Voodoo, a religion practiced by the Vodun tribes of Dahomey (now called Benin), also contains syncretic elements from Catholicism.

These traditions use medicinal plants in different ways from much of contemporary North American/European-centric herbalism. There are many features, such as the use of mojo bags and talismans to protect and heal, or, if there is bad intent, to hexes on enemy. These practices can be described as "hoodoo," mojo working," or "rootwork"

The southeastern United States witnessed a unique system of assessment through the exchange and fusion between knowledge. This is documented in the book Southern Folk Medicine written by Phyllis D. Light. Tommie Bass, a famous South historic herbalist, was also heavily influenced by Indigenous and African traditions. Bass was also a teacher at Phyllis Light's. ¹ Tommie studied with Mollie Kirby, an elderly Black midwife.

Black women were especially responsible for helping to heal and help through the entire life cycle, from birth to death, throughout the United States. Slavery was not an option. The practice of African American midwifery was banned in many areas of the South, where modern birthing methods were being adopted. Maude Calen was one of the many southern midwives whose lives have been documented. Other women, including ^3-6 Black mothers, continued to care for white children well into the 20th century in the south. There is a revival in Black midwifery. (See blackmidwivesalliance.org)

The Afro-botanical healing tradition includes some of the most important native plants of North America:

• Black walnut ( Juglans Nigeria
• Cudweed ( Ganaphalium).
• The walking stick of the Devil ( Aralia spinosa).
• Dogbane (Apocynum cannabinum)
• Dogwood ( Cornus florida).
• Eastern red cedar ( Juniperus Virginiana ).
• Holly ( Ilex).
• Sassafras (Sassafras albidum)
• Pine ( Pinus).
• Sumac ( Rhus).
• Sweetgum ( Liquidambar Styraciflua).
• Black cherry ( Prunus Serotina).
• Wax myrtle or bayberry ( Myrica Cerifera).
• Witch-hazel (Hamamelis virginiana)

Mullein/mullet ( Verbascum thapsus), peach( Prunus persica), pomegranate (+ Punica Granatum) are some of the plants that were brought to North America from Eurasia. Francis Porcher's Resource of the Southern Fields & Forest provides a comprehensive overview of plant knowledge from the South during Civil War.

Black Herbalists in Literature & History

A few North American Black herbalists have whole books on their perspectives, including MaudeE. Scott in Florida and John Lee in North Carolina. Another North Carolina herbalist has been honored as shown in this YouTube video.

The book Black Indian Slave Narratives by Patrick Minges offers a deep look into the lives of several people and their connection to slavery and mixed ancestry. It also includes fascinating tidbits of botanical lore, including the making of persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) beer. Patrick Minges' book Black Indian Slave Narratives offers a deep look into the lives and connections of many people to slavery and mixed ancestry. There are also fascinating tidbits about botanical lore such as how persimmon (Diospyros veridianiana) beer is made.

The Gullah/Geechee group of the Sea Islands off Georgia and the Carolinas is a unique group that was removed from the mainstream until the mid-1900s. The Gullah/Geechee community of the Sea Islands off the coast of Georgia and Carolinas is a special group that was isolated from mainstream society until the mid-1900s. The Gullah Geechee Hisbal Gathering is an annual conference for Black and Indigenous peoples and Gullah Geechees. This conference is an annual event that aims to explore the cultural and historical uses of herbs and plant medicine within the Gullah/Geechee Nation as well as the diaspora.

George Washington Carver is the most well-known Black scientist of all time. Although he worked with many different plants and fungi, he is best known for his numerous applications for peanuts. ^14-16 His connection to Mariah Watkins, a Black midwife and herbalist, is less well-known. One of the earliest public food forests in modern times was established in Asheville, NC. It is named after Carver.

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Harriet Tubman is best known for her work in liberating enslaved peoples. She was also an avid naturalist and was well-versed in the plants that surround her. To help her people, she used herbalism. Leah Penniman, activist and farmer, writes about these and other aspects of African American herbal tradition in her book farming While Black. ¹⁷

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Madam C.J. Walker was one of the first Black millionaires and the first female millionaire (of any race) to be self-made in the United States. Her line of herbal-based beauty and health products was her responsibility. Her line of herb-based beauty and health products was her responsibility. ^18-20

The great migration was when millions fled the Jim Crow South and the violence that it brought. ²¹ Many of these migrants settled in large cities, in northern areas of the country, or moved to the west. California was the home of a double diasporic Black herbal tradition.

Onesimus is a person of historical importance. He was born in Africa, but was enslaved by the British and brought to Boston, MA. He taught Cotton Mather smallpox vaccination, a technique that was well-known in other countries. However, it was not yet practiced in North America. His tragic story is a sad example of the centuries-old exploitation and abuse of Black knowledge.

Another example of uncredited intellectual propriety was the teaching of Black people how to distill by Jack Daniels, and the subsequent importation from Africa to America of the procedure known "cesarean section."

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Use Potentially Poisonous Or Rare Plants and Nonplants

Many references are made to potentially toxic plants in the African pharmacopeia as well as the diaspora. Some key examples include bitter melon/cerassee/sorosi (Momordica charantia), castor bean (Ricinus communis), dogbane (Apocynum cannabinum), Mexican tea (Dysphania ambrosioides), poke (Phytolacca americana), red sage (Lantana camara), and rosary pea (Abrus precatorius). ²² Cotton. Enslaved women could sometimes take agency to avoid unwanted pregnancies due to sexual assault by their enslavers by using this plant.

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Afrobotany is known for its use of endangered and rare plants. Examples include pitcher plants ( Sarracenia minor) and Virginia snakeroots ( Aristolochia selenaria).

The practice of alcohol production has a long history in the African American community, as well as many other groups around the globe. Cherry ( Prunus) are some examples of plants that can be used to make alcohol. ), elderberries (Sambucus spp. ), grapes ( Vitis) spp. ), and persimmons Diospyros Depending on the context, alcohol can be either helpful or dangerous.

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Contributions of African Americans to Advances in Medicine

Black people have been subjected to "dangerous and involuntary" medical experimentation since at least 18th century. ²³ This has been done both deceptively and forcefully as testing agents for new medications, clinical trials and surgical techniques. Their dead are also being dishonoured as the Black bodies of slaves and sharecroppers were historically taken for anatomical dissections and study. ¹²

European healing traditions used on slave-holding plantations often used toxic elemental substances such as lead and antimony. Unethical experiments on Black subjects with these poisons was a part of slavery-era medical trials. ²⁴

Unfortunately, the unethical practices of North American medical professionals have continued into modern times. The Tuskegee Syphilis experiment on Black men in the 1930s, and Miss Henrietta Lacks' case of unauthorized use her cervical cells for medical research, are two of the most well-known cases. The study was done from 1932 to 1972.

Another example of the horrible history of African American "healthcare" is the pursuit of the misguided science of eugenics, which was started in the early 1900s. Forced hysterectomies and unethical radiation experiments--especially in an incarceration context--are a despicable legacy of the prison industrial complex in particular. To protect the reputations and interests of prominent white doctors and institutions, many accounts of these horrific historical experiments and operations were kept secret or downplayed. There has been very little accountability, repercussions or reparations for the medical traumas that were inflicted upon Black people.

There is a legacy of trauma that has been passed down from generation to generation within Black communities. Sometimes, Black people are stereotyped as being resistant to modern medicine and not acknowledging their traumatizing past experiences. This is especially important given the COVID-19 epidemic and the future challenges.

Black people continue to be harmed by healthcare. ^26,27 Black Americans have less access to quality health care providers and health insurance coverage than white Americans. This results in less testing and life-saving diagnoses as well as timely and effective treatment.

Black Lives Matter

It is important to mention the intersectionality of Black and Brown lives, and the possibility for injury during protests. Sevensong has been a great influence on emergency response care from a herbal perspective. Another example of people working in this area is the Orlando Grief Care Project. The LA Times article "Why are so Many Turning to Black Herbalists?" is quite informative. They have a wide range of remedies that are perfect for 2020.

Some of the people mentioned are: Abi Huff Ancestral Apothecary Jamesa Hawthorne Jaw Ham Herbals Karen Rose Sacred Vibes Apothecary LA Herbalists Collective Regina Pritchett in Her it Blooms Sade Musa Roots of Resistance and Adaku Utah of Harriet's Apothecary

Conclusion

It is clear that the journey to African American herbalism was a difficult one. It began with the amalgamation of diverse cultures from Africa and continues through the horror of slavery. African Americans had to adapt their knowledge to new areas once they were established. Sometimes with the assistance of Indigenous groups. Many of these rich traditions have been lost in the modern era. However, herbalists are still very popular in the Americas and a new wave is emerging. This blog series will continue with the third installment, which will provide additional resources to help you explore this fascinating topic. This work has two main goals: to highlight the contributions of African Americans in the past and to inspire and inform those who can benefit from these knowledge in the future.

Refers

1. Crellin JK, Philpott J. 1997. Trying To Give Ease. Tommie Bass and The Story of Herbal Medicine. Duke University Press, 1997.
2. Patton D. Mountain Medicine - The Herbal Remedies Of Tommie Bass. 1st ed. Natural Reader Press LLC; 2004.
3. Smith, MC. Listen To Me Good: The Story Of An Alabama Midwife. Ohio State University Press, 1996.
4. Logan OL, Clark K. Momwit: An Alabama Midwife’s Story. 2014; Untreed Reads Publishing LLC
5. Smith CC, Roberson MHB. My bag was always packed: The life and times of a Virginia midwife. AuthorHouse; 2003.
6. Bovard W. Milton G. Why not Me? : Gladys Milton, Midwife. Book Publishing Company; 1993.
7. Scott ME. Leaves of Green: The Handbook of Herbal Remedies. Leaves of Green Inc., 1996.
8. Lee J., Payne-Jackson A. Folk Wisdom, Mother Wit: John Lee - An African American Herbal Healer. Greenwood Press; 1993.
9. Lee ME, Allen Taylor JD. Working the Roots - Over 400 Years of Traditional African American Healing. Wadastick; 2014.
10. Minges P, ed. Black Indian Slave Stories. John F. Blair Publishers; 2004.
11. Morton JF. Folk Remedies for the Low Country. 1st ed. Bangor-Brewer YWCA; 1974.
12. Mitchell F. Hoodoo Medicine : Gullah Herbal Remedies. Rev. Rev.
13. Ayensu ES. Medicinal Plants of West Africa. 1978. Reference Publications.
14. Kremer GR., ed. George Washington Carver: His Own Words. University of Missouri, 1991.
15. Vella C. George Washington Carver: A Life. Louisiana State University Press; 2015.
16. Clark G. The Man Who Talks With the Flowers: The Intimate Story of Dr. George Washington Carver. Martino Fine Books; 2011.
17. Penniman L. Washington K. Farming While Black - Soul Fire Farm's Practical guide to Liberation on the Land. Chelsea Green Publishing; 2018.
18. Bundles A. Self-Made: Inspired by Madam C.J. Walker. Scribner; 2020.
19. Oluonye MN. Madam C.J. Walker: Inventor, Entrepreneur, Millionaire. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform; 2014.
20. Ball EL. Madam C.J. Walker: The Making of an American Icon. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2019.
21. Wilkerson I. The Warmth Of Other Suns: The Epic Story Behind America's Great Migration. Reprint. Vintage; 2011.
22. Culpepper K. Cotton Root Bark for Herbal Resistance. J Am Herbalists Guild. 2017;15(2):45-52.
23. Washington HA. Medical Apartheid - The Dark History Of Medical Experimentation On Black Americans From Colonial Times to the Present. Anchor; 2008.
24. Schiebinger L. Secret Cure for Slaves: Peoples, Plants and Medicine in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World. 1st edition. Stanford University Press; 2017.
25. Skloot R. Henrietta Lacks. Broadway Books; 2011.
26. Hearst M., et al. "The Effect of Racial Residential Segregation On Black Infant Mortality." American Journal of Epidemiology168. 11 (December 2008): 1247-54.
27. American Cancer Society. Statistics and Figures on Cancer for African Americans 2018, 2018.